Southeast Europe (1828–1971 CE)

Empires in Retreat, Nations in Rebirth, and Frontiers Between Worlds

Geography & Environmental Context

Southeast Europe includes two fixed subregions:

• Eastern Southeast Europe — Romania, Moldova, Bulgaria (except the southwestern portion), northeastern Serbia, northeastern Croatia, extreme northeastern Bosnia and Herzegovina, modern-day Moldova, and the European side of Turkey, including Istanbul.

• Western Southeast Europe — Greece, Albania, Montenegro, North Macedonia, Kosovo, most of Bosnia and Herzegovina, most of Croatia, southwestern Serbia, and the Adriatic and Aegean coasts facing the Mediterranean.

Anchors include the Balkan Mountains, Carpathians, Danube River, Aegean, Adriatic, and Black Sea coasts, as well as key cities such as Istanbul, Bucharest, Sofia, Athens, Belgrade, Sarajevo, and Thessaloniki. The subregion links central Europe to the eastern Mediterranean and Anatolia — a crossroads of empires, faiths, and ideologies.

Climate & Environmental Shifts

The region’s temperate continental and Mediterranean climates supported mixed agriculture and mountain pastoralism. Deforestation and erosion increased through the 19th century as railways and timber exports expanded. Flooding along the Danube and its tributaries required early engineering works. Twentieth-century industrialization and urbanization accelerated pollution but also brought reforestation and hydroelectric projects. Coastal areas remained vulnerable to earthquakes and drought, while inland winters could be severe.

Subsistence & Settlement

• Agrarian life dominated until mid-20th century, with cereals, vines, olives, and livestock central to rural economies. Peasant communities balanced subsistence with market sales under Ottoman, Habsburg, and later national administrations.

• Urban centers such as Athens, Belgrade, Sofia, Bucharest, and Istanbul expanded as administrative and industrial capitals. Port cities—Salonika (Thessaloniki), Constanța, Dubrovnik, and Trieste—thrived on Mediterranean and Black Sea trade.

• After World War II, socialist land reforms and collectivization reshaped rural life; industrial towns multiplied along river corridors and mining basins (e.g., Nis, Ploiești, Varna).

• Tourism and migration to Western Europe after 1950 introduced remittances and urban growth on the coasts.

Technology & Material Culture

Railways, bridges, and telegraphs of the 19th century tied the Balkans to European networks. Textile mills, shipyards, and munitions factories developed under both Ottoman and Habsburg influence. Twentieth-century modernization brought hydropower dams, concrete housing blocks, and expanding road systems. Material culture reflected blending: Ottoman bazaars stood beside neoclassical and socialist architecture; folk crafts, Orthodox icons, and Islamic calligraphy persisted as living art forms.

Movement & Interaction Corridors

• Trade and migration followed the Danube, Adriatic, and Aegean routes linking inland markets to seaports.

• Pilgrimage and faith networks connected Orthodox monasteries on Mount Athos with Slavic and Greek communities; Muslim routes linked Sarajevo and Istanbul.

• Labor migrations carried Balkan workers to Vienna, Paris, and later Germany and Switzerland.

• Military corridors—from the Crimean and Balkan Wars to both World Wars—crossed the peninsula repeatedly, leaving deep scars on settlements and memory.

Cultural & Symbolic Expressions

National revivals defined the century: Romantic historians, philologists, and poets reasserted Slavic, Greek, Albanian, and Romanian identities. Orthodox Christianity, Catholicism, and Islam coexisted, often in tension but also in hybrid traditions. Literature and art—Vuk Karadžić’s language reforms, Ion Luca Caragiale’s satires, Nikola Tesla’sinnovations, Nikos Kazantzakis’s epics—bridged folk and modernist sensibilities. Music and dance, from Byzantine chant to sevdah and rebetiko, expressed cultural resilience. After 1945, socialist realism and modernism merged in film, muralism, and architecture.

Environmental Adaptation & Resilience

Mountain terraces and transhumance persisted into the 20th century. Drainage projects reclaimed wetlands along the Danube and Thessaly Plain. Postwar collectivization altered traditional landholding but expanded irrigation. Coastal regions diversified into fishing and tourism; interior highlands relied on remittances and forest products. Hydroelectric and reforestation projects mitigated erosion, though industrial pollution rose near new mining and chemical centers.

Political & Military Shocks

• Ottoman decline and independence: Greece (independence 1830), Serbia and Romania (recognized 1878), Bulgaria (autonomous 1878, independent 1908), and Albania (1912) emerged from imperial rule.

• Balkan Wars (1912–13) redrew frontiers; Ottoman Europe contracted to Istanbul and Eastern Thrace.

• World War I: Sparked by the assassination in Sarajevo (1914), it devastated the region and dissolved empires.

• Interwar instability: Ethnic minorities, border disputes, and authoritarian monarchies dominated.

• World War II: Axis occupation and resistance movements (notably Tito’s Partisans in Yugoslavia, the Greek Resistance) reshaped politics.

• Postwar socialism and division: Yugoslavia under Josip Broz Tito pursued independent socialism; Bulgaria, Romania, and Albania aligned with the Soviet bloc; Greece experienced civil war (1946–49) and joined NATO (1952).

• Cold War era: The Iron Curtain cut through the Balkans; Yugoslavia balanced East and West, hosting the Non-Aligned Movement (1961); Bulgaria and Romania industrialized under Soviet models; Greece rebuilt under Western alliances and endured military dictatorship (1967–74, partially beyond our range).

Transition

Between 1828 and 1971, Southeast Europe moved from imperial frontier to a complex patchwork of nation-states, socialist republics, and contested borderlands. Independence movements, world wars, and ideological divides repeatedly redrew its map. Ottoman bazaars and Byzantine monasteries gave way to factories, collective farms, and concrete housing blocks. Yet, amid wars and revolutions, cultural synthesis persisted: Orthodox chants, sevdah songs, and folk embroidery survived in socialist festivals and tourist markets alike. By 1971, the peninsula was once again at Europe’s fault line—its peoples navigating between memory and modernity, nationalism and integration, the Mediterranean and the East.

Eastern Southeast Europe (1828–1971 CE): From Ottoman Provinces to Socialist Republics and Cold War Faultlines

Geography & Environmental Context

Eastern Southeast Europe includes Turkey-in-Europe (Istanbul/Constantinople and Thrace), Thrace-in-Greece, all of Bulgaria (except the southwest), northeastern Serbia, northeastern Croatia, extreme northeastern Bosnia and Herzegovina, and all of modern Moldova and Romania. Anchors include the Danube River corridor (Iron Gates, the Wallachian plain, the Delta), the Balkan Mountains (Stara Planina), the Rhodope foothills, the Dobrudja steppe, and the Black Sea ports (Constanța, Varna, Burgas). The region also encompasses major cities such as Istanbul, Bucharest, Sofia, Belgrade, Zagreb, Chișinău, and Iași.

Climate & Environmental Shifts

The region sits between continental and Mediterranean zones. Harsh winters in the Danube plain alternated with drought-prone summers, especially in Dobrudja and eastern Bulgaria. The Danube’s flooding cycles challenged settlements until large-scale river control projects in the 19th and 20th centuries. The 20th century brought irrigation, drainage of marshlands, and damming (e.g., the Iron Gates hydroelectric project, 1964–71). Agricultural collectivization after 1945 transformed landscapes, replacing small peasant plots with mechanized state farms.

Subsistence & Settlement

• 19th century:

  • The Danubian plains of Wallachia, Moldavia, and Bulgaria produced wheat, maize, and livestock for export through Black Sea ports.

  • Vineyards, orchards, and tobacco fields dotted Thrace and the Bulgarian lowlands.

  • Istanbul remained an imperial metropolis, provisioning itself from the Thracian hinterlands.

• 20th century:

  • Under socialism, collectivized farms in Romania and Bulgaria mechanized cereal, maize, and sunflower cultivation.

  • Industrialization accelerated in cities like Bucharest, Sofia, and Varna.

  • Black Sea fisheries and ports (Constanța, Varna, Burgas) expanded as hubs of trade, energy, and tourism.

Technology & Material Culture

• Transport: 19th-century railways tied Bucharest, Sofia, and Constanța to Vienna and Istanbul. After WWII, highways, electrification, and hydro dams modernized the region.

• Industry: From the late 19th century, oil in Romania (Ploiești), textiles in Bulgaria, and shipyards on the Black Sea were developed. By the 1960s, heavy industry (steel, chemicals, machinery) dominated socialist economies.

• Everyday life: Villages retained traditional Orthodox churches, Ottoman-style houses, and folk crafts until mid-20th-century collectivization introduced apartment blocks and standardized housing. Radios and televisions spread after 1950.

Movement & Interaction Corridors

• Danube River: The artery linking Vienna, Belgrade, and the Black Sea, carrying grain, timber, and later oil.

• Caravan & rail: Ottoman caravan trails gave way to 19th-century railways (e.g., Bucharest–Giurgiu line, 1869).

• Black Sea: Ports exported grain, oil, and industrial products to Mediterranean and global markets.

• Labor and migration: Peasants moved to towns during industrialization; after WWII, rural depopulation accelerated as cities absorbed labor for factories.

Cultural & Symbolic Expressions

• Religion: Orthodoxy dominated in Romania and Bulgaria; Islam retained influence in Thrace; Catholic enclaves persisted in Croatia and Bosnia. Churches and mosques coexisted uneasily, often politicized in nationalist discourse.

• Nationalism:

  • Romanian and Bulgarian revivals in the 19th century emphasized language, folklore, and Orthodox faith.

  • Revolutionaries in 1848, independence fighters in the Russo-Turkish War (1877–78), and Balkan wars (1912–13) created heroic pantheons.

• Modern culture: Interwar Bucharest earned the nickname “Paris of the East.” Socialist regimes after 1945 promoted workers’ culture, folk dance troupes, and monumental architecture while censoring dissent.

Environmental Adaptation & Resilience

• Agrarian cycles: Crop rotation, terracing, and pastoralism provided resilience until collectivization.

• River control: Drainage of the Danube marshes in Romania and Bulgaria reclaimed farmland and reduced malaria.

• Social welfare: After WWII, socialist states subsidized food, housing, and education, cushioning shocks but reducing household autonomy.

Political & Military Shocks

• 1828–1878: Russo-Turkish Wars and nationalist uprisings freed Romania, Bulgaria, and Serbia from Ottoman rule.

• 1878 Berlin Congress: Established Romania, Serbia, and Bulgaria as independent or autonomous; left Thrace and Macedonia under Ottoman control.

• Balkan Wars (1912–13): Bulgaria and Romania fought over Macedonia and Dobruja; territorial shifts embittered neighbors.

• World War I: Romania and Bulgaria fought on opposing sides; Dobruja and Transylvania contested.

• Interwar: Authoritarian monarchies and peasant movements shaped politics.

• World War II: Romania allied with Axis, Bulgaria with Axis but resisted deporting Jews, while Yugoslav and Greek partisans fought German occupation.

• 1944–48 Soviet expansion: Romania and Bulgaria absorbed into the Soviet bloc, establishing one-party socialist states; purges, collectivization, and repression followed.

• Cold War: Eastern Southeast Europe became a Warsaw Pact frontier with NATO’s Turkey and Greece; heavy militarization and ideological control lasted through 1971.

Transition

Between 1828 and 1971, Eastern Southeast Europe transformed from Ottoman provinces into independent kingdoms, then into Soviet-aligned socialist republics. The Danube and Black Sea tied the region into global grain and oil markets in the 19th century, while nationalism redrew maps through wars and uprisings. After 1945, industrialization, collectivization, and Soviet patronage reshaped economies and societies. By 1971, Romania and Bulgaria were deeply embedded in the socialist bloc, while Thrace and Istanbul marked the border between NATO and the Warsaw Pact—this subregion now firmly a faultline of the Cold War world.

Eastern Southeast Europe (1852–1863 CE): Unification Efforts, National Revival, and International Influence

Settlement and Migration Patterns

Romanian Political Unification

The movement to unify Wallachia and Moldavia gained significant momentum. Despite international opposition, the two principalities united politically under the leadership of Alexandru Ioan Cuza in 1859. This event laid the foundations for the establishment of modern Romania.

Economic and Social Developments

Economic Integration of the Principalities

Economic cooperation advanced notably during this era. The construction of significant roadways improved internal trade, and the removal of customs barriers between Wallachia and Moldavia, initiated by Princes Gheorghe Bibescu and Mihai Sturdza, marked a critical step towards economic integration.

Cultural and Artistic Developments

Bulgarian Cultural Institutions

The establishment of the chitalishte ("reading rooms") beginning in 1856 significantly enhanced Bulgarian cultural life. These centers became focal points for education, performances, lectures, and public discourse, thus playing a crucial role in spreading nationalist ideas among the broader population.

Printing and Intellectual Life

Bulgarian intellectual activities thrived, particularly through increased book printing and periodical publications. Most Bulgarian-language periodicals were printed in Romanian emigrant centers and Constantinople, reflecting the centrality of the city to the Bulgarian National Revival.

Intellectual and Religious Developments

Bulgarian Ecclesiastical Independence Movement

The campaign for Bulgarian ecclesiastical autonomy from the Greek Orthodox Patriarchate intensified. Bulgarian leaders successfully lobbied Ottoman authorities to permit Bulgarian liturgy and appoint national bishops, bolstering religious and national identity.

Romanian Educational Reforms

Educational reform accompanied political changes in the Romanian principalities. Prince Alexandru Ioan Cuza founded the universities of Bucharest and Iași, banned the use of Greek in churches, and secularized monastic properties, significantly influencing Romanian educational and religious practices.

Political Dynamics and Regional Rivalries

Crimean War and International Influence

The Crimean War (1853–1856) significantly impacted Eastern Southeast Europe. Russian defeat reduced its direct influence in the Romanian principalities, shifting to a joint European guarantee under the Treaty of Paris (1856). The treaty opened navigation on the Danube and ceded control of southern Bessarabia and the Danube's mouth to Moldavia.

Romanian Unification and Cuza's Reforms

The election of Alexandru Ioan Cuza as prince of both Wallachia and Moldavia led to unified governance by 1861, later officially recognized as the Romanian United Principalities in 1862. Cuza's significant reform agenda included abolishing serfdom, instituting public education, and introducing a new agrarian law, although these measures faced opposition from boyar elites.

Ottoman Reforms and the Eastern Question

The declining Ottoman Empire continued its Tanzimat reforms, but nationalist aspirations grew stronger across the Balkans. The international community remained wary, aiming to maintain the balance of power, which indirectly facilitated Romanian unification efforts.

Key Historical Events and Developments

• Unification of Wallachia and Moldavia (1859) under Alexandru Ioan Cuza.

• Crimean War (1853–1856) resulting in the Treaty of Paris (1856).

• Establishment of chitalishte as centers of Bulgarian national culture.

• Significant educational and religious reforms by Cuza in Romania.

Long-Term Consequences and Historical Significance

This era was pivotal, setting the stage for modern national states in Southeastern Europe. The unification of the Romanian principalities marked a significant shift in the region's political landscape, while cultural and educational reforms profoundly influenced national identities, preparing the groundwork for future independence movements and regional transformations.

The active campaign for union of Walachia and Moldavia begins in 1856.

The movement has the support of France, because many Romanian revolutionaries had taken refuge there after 1848 and have lobbied Napoleon III to press for unification; Austria, Britain, and the Ottomans, however, oppose the unification effort, while Russia opts to let the Romanians decide.

In 1857 the Porte manipulates an election of delegates to special assemblies charged with discussing unification; the few voters casting ballots elect representatives opposing union.

An international crisis follows, and Napoleon III, with Russian and British support, finally pressures the Ottomans to nullify the results and hold new, untainted elections, which return a huge majority of delegates in favor of unification.

These delegates immediately call for autonomy, a constitutional government, and a foreign prince to rule the unified principalities.

Despite the election results, an international conference in Paris in 1858 reaffirms separation of Walachia and Moldavia under Ottoman sovereignty, but it allows for a common coinage and uniform laws and titles the two states the "United Principalities."

The Romanians themselves overcome the imposed separation in 1859 when the separate assemblies at Bucharest and Iasi unanimously elect the same man, Alexandru loan Cuza, governor of both principalities.

The leading European nations, distracted by war in Italy, yield to a fait accompli and accept unification, and Cuza (1859-66) becomes prince.

The European powers and the Ottoman Empire ratify Cuza's election after discussions in Paris, and the United Principalities officially become the Romanian United Principalities in 1862.

Almost immediately Cuza initiates a reform program.

Encountering resistance from oligarchic boyars, the prince appeals to the masses and holds a referendum that approves constitutional provisions giving him broad powers to implement his program.

The government improves roads, founds the universities of Bucharest and Iasi, bans the use of Greek in churches and monasteries, and secularizes monastic property.

Cuza also signs an agrarian law that eliminates serfdom, tithes, and forced labor and allows peasants to acquire land.

Unfortunately, the new holdings are often too expensive for the peasants and too small to provide self-sufficiency; as a consequence, the peasantry's lot deteriorates.

Parallel with educational advancement, Bulgarian book printing has advanced substantially after 1830.

Before that date only seventeen original Bulgarian titles had been printed, but by mid-century, printing has replaced manuscript copying as the predominant means of distributing the written word.

The first periodical had been printed in Bulgarian in 1844, beginning an outpouring of mostly ephemeral journals through the nineteenth century.

Censorship before 1878 means that the majority of such journals are printed in the Romanian emigrant centers, outside the Ottoman Empire.

Most Bulgarian-language periodicals printed within the empire come from Constantinople, showing the cultural importance of that city to the Bulgarian National Revival.

After 1850 Bulgarian emigre periodicals, supporting a wide variety of political views toward the national independence movement, play a vital role in stimulating Bulgarian political consciousness.

Mixed domestic gains and losses in France result from European policies.

The support France gives to the Italian cause has aroused the eager hopes of other nations.

The proclamation of the Kingdom of Italy on March 17, 1861 after the rapid annexation of Tuscany and the kingdom of Two Sicilies has proved the danger of half-measures, but when a concession, however narrow, has been made to the liberty of one nation, it can hardly be refused to the no less legitimate aspirations of the rest.

In 1863, these "new rights" again clamor loudly for recognition: in Poland, in Schleswig and Holstein, in Italy, now united, with neither frontiers nor capital, and in the Danubian principalities.

To extricate himself from the Polish impasse, the emperor again proposes a congress, with no luck.

He is again unsuccessful: Great Britain refuses even to admit the principle of a congress, while Austria, Prussia and Russia give their adhesion only on conditions which render it futile, i.e., they reserve the vital questions of Venetia and Poland.

The Emperor support of the Polish rebels alienates the Russian leadership.

The visit of Czar Alexander II to Paris becomes a disaster when he is twice attacked by Polish assassins, though he escapes.

In Berlin, Bismarck sees the opportunity to squeeze out the French by forming closer relationships with the Russians.

The European powers and the Ottoman Empire ratify Cuza's election after discussions in Paris, and the United Principalities officially become Romania in 1861.

Cuza initiates a reform program almost immediately.

Encountering resistance from oligarchic boyars, the prince appeals to the masses and holds a referendum that approve constitutional provisions giving him broad powers to implement his program.

The government improves roads, founds the universities of Bucharest and Iasi, bans the use of Greek in churches and monasteries, and secularizes monastic property.

Cuza also signs an agrarian law that eliminates serfdom, tithes, and forced labor and allows peasants to acquire land.

Unfortunately, the new holdings are often too expensive for the peasants and too small to provide self-sufficiency; consequently, the peasantry's lot deteriorates.

Abdulmejid, Sultan of the Ottoman Empire (1839–1861) dies on June 25, 1861, and is succeeded by his brother Abdülaziz, whose parents are the late Mahmud II and Pertevniyal Sultan (1812–1883), originally named Besime, a Circassian.

In 1868 Pertevniyal was residing at Dolmabahçe Palace.

That year Abdülaziz led the visiting Eugénie de Montijo, Empress of France, to see his mother.

Pertevniyal perceived the presence of a foreign woman within her quarters of the seraglio as an insult.

She reportedly slapped Eugénie across the face, almost resulting in an international incident.

According to another account, Pertevniyal became outraged by the forwardness of Eugénie taking the arm of one of her sons while he gave a tour of the palace garden, and she gave the Empress a slap on the stomach as a possibly more subtly intended than often represented reminder that they were not in France.

The Pertevniyal Valide Sultan Mosque will be built under the patronage of his mother.

The construction work will begin in November 1869 and the mosque will be finished in 1871.

His paternal grandparents are Sultan Abdul Hamid I and Sultana Nakşidil Sultan.

Several accounts identify his paternal grandmother with Aimée du Buc de Rivéry, a cousin of Empress Joséphine.

Pertevniyal is a sister of Khushiyar Qadin, third wife of Ibrahim Pasha of Egypt.

Khushiyar and Ibrahim were the parents of Isma'il.

Eastern Southeast Europe (1864–1875 CE): Cultural Revival, National Movements, and Pre-Independence Turmoil

Settlement and Migration Patterns

Hungarian and Serbian Territorial Realignments

Austria-Hungary returned Vojvodina, home to a significant Serbian population, to Hungarian control following the establishment of the Dual Monarchy in 1867. This administrative shift stirred ethnic tensions and political instability, as Hungarian authority once again attempted to assert dominance over non-Magyar populations.

Economic and Social Developments

Infrastructure and Economic Growth in the Danubian Principalities

In Romania, significant strides were made toward economic unification and modernization. The dismantling of customs barriers between Wallachia and Moldavia in the late 1840s set the stage for deeper integration. Economic progress continued under Prince Alexandru Ioan Cuza, who implemented essential infrastructure projects and agrarian reforms, though these measures were only partially successful due to entrenched boyar interests.

Cultural and Artistic Developments

Bulgarian National Revival

The Bulgarian cultural renaissance accelerated dramatically during this period. Dobri Chintulov and other literary figures produced influential works in modern Bulgarian, fueling national consciousness. Education expanded rapidly with the establishment of schools teaching in Bulgarian, notably in Gabrovo under Neofit Rilski, and the opening of schools for girls in cities like Pleven. The growth of Bulgarian-language publications and the formation of cultural institutions such as the chitalishte greatly contributed to the rise of a distinct national identity.

Serbian Literary and Cultural Awakening

Serbian national identity was similarly invigorated by scholars such as Vuk Karadžić and Dositej Obradović, who revitalized the Serbian language, folklore, and literature. Their work significantly strengthened Serbian cultural nationalism and intellectual life, creating a foundation for future national aspirations.

Intellectual and Religious Developments

Bulgarian Ecclesiastical Autonomy

The struggle for ecclesiastical independence reached a climax in 1870 when the Ottoman Sultan officially declared the Bulgarian Orthodox Church a separate exarchate, ending centuries of Greek Patriarchate dominance. This ecclesiastical autonomy became a critical milestone in Bulgaria's national consolidation, symbolizing the political and cultural separation from Greek and Ottoman influences.

Emergence of the Young Ottoman Movement

The Young Ottoman movement gained prominence among Western-oriented Ottoman intellectuals who sought reform through adopting European political models. Their advocacy for constitutional government and national integration significantly influenced Ottoman reform efforts and the broader political discourse within the empire.

Political Dynamics and Regional Rivalries

Revolts and Revolutionary Activities in Bulgaria

Bulgarian revolutionary activities intensified, spearheaded by figures such as Georgi Rakovski, Vasil Levski, and Liuben Karavelov. Their efforts culminated in the formation of the Bulgarian Revolutionary Central Committee (BRCC), which coordinated revolts against Ottoman rule, notably the September Uprising of 1875. Although these revolts were initially unsuccessful, they drew international attention to Bulgaria's plight and set the stage for greater involvement by external powers.

Romanian Political Developments

Political turbulence marked Prince Alexandru Ioan Cuza’s final years due to his increasingly unpopular reforms and perceived corruption, culminating in his forced abdication in 1866. His successor, the German-born Prince Carol I, instituted a constitutional monarchy, modernized the administration, and significantly advanced infrastructure projects, including railway construction.

International Rivalries and the Eastern Question

The weakening Ottoman Empire continued to be a central concern in European diplomacy, with Britain and France intervening to counterbalance Russian influence. This geopolitical maneuvering intensified as nationalist movements within Ottoman territories grew stronger, setting the stage for the significant territorial and political rearrangements soon to come.

Key Historical Events and Developments

• Establishment of the Dual Monarchy (Austria-Hungary) in 1867, returning Vojvodina to Hungarian control.

• Official recognition of the Bulgarian Orthodox Church as a separate entity in 1870.

• Revolutionary efforts in Bulgaria, particularly the BRCC and the September Uprising of 1875.

• Forced abdication of Prince Alexandru Ioan Cuza (1866) and subsequent ascension of Prince Carol I.

Long-Term Consequences and Historical Significance

This era laid critical foundations for Eastern Southeast Europe's subsequent political and national transformations. Cultural and religious movements bolstered national identities, while revolutionary activities against Ottoman rule highlighted the region’s growing instability, directly influencing the dramatic territorial and political shifts that occurred in the following decades.