Edward I of England and Philip the Fair of France declare war on each other.

To finance this war, both kings lay taxes on the clergy.

Pope Boniface VIII insists that kings gain papal consent of taxation of the clergy and forbids churchmen to pay taxes.

Master Honoré and the Evolution of Illumination (1295)

Master Honoré, a Parisian miniaturist, was one of the first manuscript illuminators to emerge from a secular workshop, rather than a monastic scriptorium. Working for the court of King Philip IV (Philip the Fair), he played a key role in shaping late 13th-century manuscript illumination, particularly in the increasing use of illusionism.

• In 1295, Honoré completed the "Prayer Book of Philip the Fair," a masterpiece that showcased innovative techniques in shading and highlights, creating an illusion of three-dimensionality.
• While his figures remained two-dimensional, his careful application of light and shadow on drapery and facial features gave his compositions a greater sense of depth and realism.
• His work inspired later Gothic manuscript illumination, setting the stage for the more advanced illusionistic effects of the 14th and 15th centuries.

The Auld Alliance: Scotland and France Unite Against England (1295)

In 1295, following increasing tensions with King Edward I of England, John de Balliol, King of Scots, sought an alliance with France to counter English aggression.

• On October 23, 1295, the first formal treaty of the Auld Alliance was signed in Paris, officially binding Scotland and France against England.
• The treaty guaranteed mutual military support, ensuring that if one nation was attacked by England, the other would provide aid.
• This alliance set the foundation for centuries of Franco-Scottish cooperation, enduring even beyond the Middle Ages and influencing the diplomatic landscape of Britain and France well into the 16th century.

Long-Term Impact of the Auld Alliance

• The Auld Alliance played a crucial role in Scotland’s resistance to English rule, most notably during the Wars of Scottish Independence (1296–1357).
• France and Scotland remained close allies for over 250 years, until the Treaty of Edinburgh (1560) formally ended their military cooperation.
• The alliance also influenced trade, culture, and diplomacy, fostering strong Franco-Scottish relations that persisted even after Scotland’s union with England in 1707.

Conclusion

The year 1295 marked significant cultural and political developments:

• Master Honoré’s innovations in manuscript illumination paved the way for a more illusionistic style in Gothic art.
• The Auld Alliance treaty cemented a long-standing Franco-Scottish relationship, shaping medieval and early modern European geopolitics.

Both events exemplify the interplay between artistic evolution and political maneuvering in late 13th-century Europe.

Philip IV's Seizure of Gascony and the Anglo-French War (1294–1297)

In 1294, tensions between Philip IV of France and Edward I of England escalated when French troops, under Philip’s direction, occupied English strongholds in Gascony—a fief held by Edward I as a vassal of the French Crown. This aggressive move led Edward to repudiate his vassalage and marked the beginning of a new phase in the long-running conflict between England and France.

Causes of the Conflict

• Gascony was a key English possession in southwestern France, held as part of the Duchy of Aquitaine. Although it was formally a vassal territory under the French Crown, its rulers—English kings—frequently acted independently, leading to recurring disputes over sovereignty.
• The immediate cause of the war was a maritime dispute between English and French sailors, which escalated into a full-blown diplomatic crisis.
• In 1294, Philip IV summoned Edward I to appear before him as his vassal to answer for alleged violations in Gascony.
• When Edward refused, Philip declared the duchy forfeited, allowing French troops to seize English-held towns and castles in 1294–1295.

Philip’s War Measures and the Alliance with Scotland

• To finance the war, Philip IV attempted new fiscal measures, including heavy taxation and the debasement of coinage, which proved deeply unpopular and led to widespread discontent.
• Seeking to undermine England further, Philip forged an alliance with Scotland, taking advantage of John Balliol’s conflicts with Edward I.
• In 1295, Philip pushed deep into Gascony, launching a successful campaign to retake Guienne, dealing a major blow to English control in France.

Consequences of the Conflict

• The war drained both kingdoms financially, forcing both monarchs to seek extraordinary revenues from their subjects, provoking internal unrest.
• Although the war did not result in a decisive victory for either side, Philip IV’s seizure of Guienne in 1295 temporarily strengthened French royal authority over its southwestern territories.
• The conflict set the stage for ongoing Anglo-French rivalry, which would ultimately culminate in the Hundred Years' War (1337–1453).

Philip IV’s aggressive expansion in Gascony and his alliance with Scotland demonstrated his ambition to weaken England and centralize French power, while Edward I’s repudiation of vassalage foreshadowed the long-term breakdown of feudal ties between England and France.

Edward I of England summons the Model Parliament to Westminster  on November 13, 1295.

This assembly includes members of the clergy and the aristocracy, as well as representatives from the various counties and boroughs.

Each county returns two knights, two burgesses are elected from each borough, and each city provides two citizens.

This composition will become the model for later parliaments, hence the name.

A similar scheme had been used in summoning De Montfort's Parliament in 1265.

That Parliament, however, had been called by Simon de Montfort in the middle of the Second Barons' War against Henry III of England; that the same scheme should be adopted by a king (Henry's son and heir, who had quelled Montfort's uprising) is remarkable.

The assembly is unicameral, summoning forty-nine lords to sit with two hundred and ninety-two representatives of the Commons.

The Model Parliament creates a precedent, whereby each "successor of a baron" (which includes Lords spirirtual) who received a writ to the parliament of 1295 has "a legal right to receive a writ."

(Powicke, Maurice, Medieval England: 1066-1485, pp.

96-97 (London: Oxford University Press paperback edition 1969).)

However, this strictly hereditary right will not be recognized formally until 1387.

John Balliol, in an attempt to assert Scottish independence during his reign, mobilizes troops and prepares to invade northern England.

Edward I responds by immediately invading and subduing Scotland, receiving homage from many nobles, including Bruce.

Edward’s forces storm and captures Berwick-upon-Tweed on March 30, 1296, sacking what is at this time a Scottish border town with much bloodshed, slaughtering most residents, including those who flee to the churches.

After sacking Berwick, Longshanks’ forces defeat and imprison Baliol, then …

…take Edinburgh, …

…Stirling, …

…Perth, …

…Elgin, and other castles.

The battle of Dunbar, an action between two bodies of mounted men-at-arms, effectively ends the war of 1296, with the English winning.

The remainder of the campaign is little more than a grand mopping-up operation.

James, the hereditary High Steward of Scotland, surrenders the important fortress at Roxburgh without attempting a defense, and others are quick to follow his example.

Only Edinburgh Castle holds out for a week against Edward's siege engines.

A Scottish garrison sent out to help King John, who had fled north to Forfar, are told to provide for their own safety.

Edward himself advances into central and northern Scotland in pursuit of King John.

Stirling Castle, which guards the vital passage across the River Forth, is deserted save for a janitor who had stayed behind to hand the keys to the English.

John reaches Perth on June 21, where he receives messages from Edward asking for peace.