The Northern Wei Dynasty, having heretofore encouraged Buddhists, begins persecuting them in 446.

The drain of manpower and tax money to temples and monasteries has threatened the secular government, and the reaction is fierce: monks and nuns are murdered, temples and icons destroyed.

All men under age fifty are prohibited from joining any monastic order in a program that will continue until 450, helping the Confucianist philosophy of the Han Dynasty to gain dominance over Buddhism.

The Roman position in Iberia has become so tenuous that three magistri utriusque militiae (masters of both services) have been sent to the peninsula between 441 and 446.

Britain is sliding into chaos under the onslaught of invading Picts and Scots.

The Britons and Anglo-Saxon mercenaries under King Vortigern appeal to Aetius (magister militum of Gaul), for military assistance in their struggle against the Picts and Irish.

Aetius has enough problems with Attila and is unable to send any help. (This according to Groans of the Britons.)

Atilla makes his second great attack on the Eastern Roman Empire in 447, but little is known of the details of the campaign.

Planned on an even bigger scale than that of 441-443, it invades the Balkans as far as Thermopylae but its main weight is directed toward the provinces of Lower Scythia and Moesia in southeastern Europe—i.e., farther to the east than the earlier assault.

He engages the Eastern Empire's forces on the Utus (Vid) River and defeats them but suffers serious losses.

During the invasion, Serdica (modern Sofia) is destroyed.

Attila forces Theodosius to cede large areas of territory south of the Danube to the Huns, and for disobeying the terms of the treaty made since 442, Attila triples his demand for tribute to twenty-one hundred pounds (about seven hundred kilograms) of gold per year; the ransom for each Roman prisoner to twelve solidi.

Aerobindus, sent along with other generals against Attila in 443, had been defeated by the king of the Huns.

In 447, he receives the title of patricius.

An earthquake on January 27, 447, destroys large parts of the walls of Constantinople, including fifty-seven towers.

The population is threatened by a plague.

Theodosius orders Constantine, praetorian prefect of the East, to supervise the repairs.

He employs the city's demoi—factions in the Hippodrome—in the work and rebuilds the walls within sixty days.

Theodosius removes Aspar and Areobindus (magister militum) from their military commands in the winter of this year.

By 447 CE, the Suebi, under King Rechila, have expanded their control over the Roman provinces of Lusitania and Baetica in Hispania, further consolidating their dominance in the region.

Bishop Germanus of Auxerre, during a possible second trip to Britain in 447, is said to have led British troops to victory over the invading Saxons and Picts.

This second visit is contested by some scholars, who suggest it may be a 'doublet' or variant version of the visit that has been mistaken as describing a different visit and erroneously included as such by Constantius, according to whom Germanus was joined by Severus, Bishop of Trier and met Elafius, described by Bede as 'a chief of that region'.

Germanus is said to have cured Elafius' enfeebled son by a miracle that served to persuade the population that Gaulish Catholicism rather than Pelagianism was the true faith.

Hawaiʻiloa, a Polynesian chief, is said to have discovered what will be called the Hawaiian Islands, according to one legend, sailing across twenty-four hundred miles of open water from the island of Raiatea, near Tahiti.

He settles on Hawaii, named in his honor.

The story of Hawaiʻiloa is attested, however, only by such late sources as the antiquarians Abraham Fornander and Thomas George Thrum.

As they did not give their original Hawaiian sources, but only digests and compilations, we cannot be sure that the tale has not been slanted towards proof of Fornander's now discredited migration theories, or that it has not been elaborated by nineteenth-century Hawaiians eager to stress the validity of their own beliefs.

Hawaiʻiloa is not mentioned in early Hawaiian sources like David Malo or Samuel Kamakau.

Malo says that there are many stories of the origin of the Hawaiians, and cites some migration tales, some legends of indigenous origin.

He does not mention Hawaiʻiloa.

Kamakau says that the first man and woman were Hulihonua and Keakahuilani, and that they were created on Oʻahu.

The Widespread Adoption of Metal Horseshoes

By the mid-fifth century, the use of metal horseshoes becomes increasingly widespread across the Near East, Middle East, and Europe, revolutionizing agriculture, transportation, and warfare. While earlier civilizations had used rawhide or bronze hoof coverings, the more advanced nailed iron horseshoe provides significant advantages in traction, durability, and hoof protection, allowing horses to be used more effectively across varied terrains.

Impact on Agriculture and Trade

• Improved Traction – Horses equipped with iron horseshoes can more easily navigate muddy, rocky, and uneven ground, making them more reliable for plowing fields and hauling goods.
• Enhanced Durability – The protection offered by metal horseshoes extends the working life of horses, reducing injuries and making them a more valuable agricultural asset.
• Expansion of Trade Routes – As horses become better suited for long-distance travel, merchants and caravans benefit from greater efficiency in overland trade, strengthening economic networks across Europe and the Middle East.

Military Advancements

• Greater Mobility – Armies using horses for scouting, cavalry charges, and mounted archery see improved performance on diverse terrains, from marshy lowlands to mountainous regions.
• Increased Horse Longevity – With better hoof protection, cavalry units maintain their horses in better condition, reducing the need for constant replacements.
• Strategic Flexibility – Horseshoes contribute to the rise of heavily armored cavalry, paving the way for the later dominance of knights and cataphracts in medieval warfare.

A Lasting Innovation

The widespread adoption of metal horseshoes marks a crucial technological shift, supporting economic growth, agricultural efficiency, and military effectiveness. This innovation will continue to shape transportation and warfare throughout the medieval period, playing a foundational role in the expansion of medieval societies across Eurasia.