The rapid expansion of anatomically modern humans out of Africa, beginning around 60,000 years ago, appears to coincide with the development of new stone tool-making techniques.

These innovations, which define the Upper Paleolithic period, distinguish the stone tool culture of Homo sapiens sapiens from the previously similar technologies of Neanderthals and other archaic human groups.

Key advancements include:

• The production of long, narrow flake tools, known as blades, which could be fashioned into a variety of specialized tools,
• The emergence of bone and ivory artifacts, and
• The eventual development of clothing, often sewn together and adorned with beads.

These technological advancements likely played a crucial role in the success and adaptability of early modern humans as they spread across new environments.

Australasia (49,293 – 28,578 BCE): Upper Pleistocene I — Continental Shelves, Fire Country, and the Unpeopled Islands of the Far South

Geographic & Environmental Context

During the long glacial prime of the Late Pleistocene, Australasia stretched as a single vast, connected super-land: the Sahul continent, where Australia, New Guinea, and Tasmania were joined by the broad Arafura and Carpentaria shelves, while across the Tasman Sea, the New Zealand–Norfolk–Kermadec arc stood isolated, volcanically active, and entirely uninhabited by humans.

The region’s physiography displayed extremes of exposure and contrast:

• To the north, tropical savannas and monsoon coasts extended from Kimberley and Arnhem Land through Cape York to the low divide of southern New Guinea, while the Gulf of Carpentaria held a vast inland sea–wetland complex.

• Across central and southern Australia, vast dune fields, salt lakes, and desert basins alternated with fertile riverine corridors like the Murray–Darling and the Willandra Lakes.

• In the south, the Bassian Plain connected the mainland to Tasmania, while New Zealand remained beyond human reach—its forests, volcanic zones, and seabird cliffs untouched.

Sea level lay ~100 m below present, enlarging the continental shelves and exposing wide coastal plains, which were colonized by both humans (in Australia) and dense faunal populations.

Climate & Environmental Shifts

• Early Glacial Phase (~49–35 ka): Gradual cooling, declining precipitation in continental interiors, and expansion of arid belts; forest contraction in the tropics and southeast.

• Approach to the Last Glacial Maximum (~35–28 ka): Sharper temperature drop, stronger seasonality, and intensified westerlies and trade winds. Northern monsoons weakened, and interior lakes fell or dried episodically.

• Regional Contrasts:
  • Northern Australia remained humid enough for monsoon-driven wet–dry cycles, sustaining aquatic ecosystems along rivers and coasts.
  • Southern Australia and Tasmania cooled markedly, with snowfall on upland ranges and alpine conditions in the Great Dividing Range and Tasmanian highlands.
  • New Zealand entered full glaciation: the Southern Alps carried expanded glaciers, and snowlines dropped by hundreds of meters.

The climate oscillated between long cold stasis and short, mild interstadials—conditions that defined both human adaptive strategies and the evolutionary dynamics of uninhabited island ecologies.

Human Presence and Lifeways

Human societies were firmly established across the Australian continent and the connected Sahul landmass, but absent east of the Tasman frontier.

Northern Australasia (Sahul Tropics)

• Occupation and Range:
  Continuous habitation in Arnhem Land, the Kimberley, Cape York, and the Gulf lowlands; movement extended across the Arafura Plain into southern New Guinea.

• Economy:
  Broad-spectrum foraging—fish, shellfish, turtles, dugong, and small terrestrial game. During glacial lowstands, coastal groups ranged across the now-submerged shelf flats, exploiting estuaries and reefs.

• Technology:
  Sophisticated flake–blade industries, hafted points, resin adhesives, and early ground ochre use; fiber and wooden implements (spears, nets, traps) widely employed.

• Symbolism:
  Earliest rock art phases—engraving and pigment painting—appeared in the Kimberley and Arnhem Land, along with structured burials and cremations.

• Resilience:
  Estate-based mobility tracked monsoon pulses; access to the flooded Carpentaria lowland and inland freshwater refugia buffered against droughts.

Southern Australasia (Southern Australia, Tasmania, South Island New Zealand)

• Australia:
  Long-settled communities adapted to harsh continental variability. Along the Willandra Lakes and Murray–Darling Basin, people fished, hunted marsupials, collected seeds and tubers, and practiced ceremonial cremation and burial rites (Mungo).
  On the expanded southern shelf coasts, foragers harvested shellfish, seals, pinnipeds, and stranded whales, while inland hunters pursued kangaroos, emus, and small marsupials.
  The use of fire to manage vegetation—so-called fire-stick farming—maintained open grasslands and supported reliable game.

• Tasmania (then mainland-connected):
  Populations ranged across the Bassian Plain, exploiting riverine corridors and coastal flats for waterfowl and fish; early cold-adapted hearth traditions emerged.

• New Zealand and sub-Antarctic arcs:
  Entirely uninhabited, though South Island glaciers carved fjords and plains later to support Holocene ecosystems.

Unpeopled Frontiers: South Polynesia and Oceanic Arcs

East of Sahul, the South Polynesian sector (New Zealand, Norfolk, Kermadec, Chatham Islands) remained a wilderness of volcanic highlands, periglacial coasts, and seabird colonies.
The Oruanui eruption (c. 25.5 ka BP) from the Taupō caldera in New Zealand blanketed the North Island and offshore ridges with tephra, reshaping soils, lakes, and drainage systems.
Forests shifted between podocarp–broadleaf canopies and scrub–grassland mosaics; moa and Haast’s eagle dominated terrestrial food webs, while offshore seabird realms thrived on predator-free islets.

Technology & Material Culture

Across Sahul, technology mirrored a mature foraging economy:

• Stone: flake–blade cores, backed microliths, and grindstones; heat treatment and resin hafting.

• Organic: spears, clubs, nets, and wooden shields; fiber technology for carrying and trapping.

• Pigment and ornament: widespread ochre use for painting, body decoration, and burial; shell and tooth ornaments signal social identity.

• Fire technology: mastery of landscape burning as a central environmental tool.

Movement & Interaction Corridors

• Land and River Networks: the Murray–Darling, Willandra, and Lake Eyre basins functioned as arteries linking interior and coast.

• Shelf and Coast Routes: mobile bands traversed the exposed Sahul shelves, harvesting estuarine resources and migrating seasonally.

• Northern Gateways: travel between northern Australia and southern New Guinea maintained genetic and cultural interchange across the connected shelf.

• Southern Pathways: the Bassian Plain allowed movement between mainland and Tasmania until postglacial flooding severed the link.

Cultural & Symbolic Expressions

• Ritual landscapes: rock shelters and burial grounds (e.g., Willandra) reveal early ceremonial organization.

• Artistic innovation: hand stencils, engraved motifs, and ochre figurative painting predate 30 ka in northern Australia.

• Fire and mythic space: controlled burning likely embedded in cosmological understanding of land stewardship.

Environmental Adaptation & Resilience

Australasia’s Pleistocene societies mastered the ecology of variability:

• Mobility with continuity: shifting among waterholes, estuaries, and resource belts on seasonal rhythms.

• Storage through knowledge: environmental mapping replaced physical storage—knowing when and where resources renewed was key.

• Fire as technology: selective burning maintained mosaics that sustained wildlife and plant yields.

• Refugia strategies: wetlands and monsoon belts offered fallback zones through glacial droughts.

The unpeopled islands to the east, by contrast, evolved ecological self-sufficiency—volcanic fertility, avian abundance, and intact forests awaiting future colonists.

Transition Toward the Next Epoch

By 28,578 BCE, the Australasian world stood poised at the threshold of deglaciation:

• Sea-level minima connected lands and compressed ecologies into wide continental shelves.

• Human societies in Sahul had adapted to every climate zone, from arid interior to reef coast, with rich symbolic traditions already in place.

• Islands beyond the Sahul frontier—New Zealand, Norfolk, Chatham, Kermadec—remained avian kingdoms without humans.

As ice sheets began their slow retreat, the landscapes and coastlines that would shape the Holocene—estuaries, islands, and archipelagos—were already being prepared by the patient interplay of fire, flood, and time.

Southeast Asia (49,293 – 28,578 BCE): Upper Pleistocene I — Sundaland Continents, Island Worlds, and the Dawn of Rock Art

Geographic & Environmental Context

At the height of the Late Pleistocene glacial world, Southeast Asia presented two contrasting landscapes — the broad, continental plains of Sundaland and the fragmented islands of Wallacea and Andamanasia — together forming one of the planet’s richest and most diverse human realms.

• Sundaland: With sea level 50–120 meters below present, the exposed shelf united Sumatra, Java, Borneo, and the Malay Peninsula into a single subcontinent threaded by enormous rivers (paleo-Mekong, Mahakam, Kapuas, Brantas, Musi). Its coastlines stretched hundreds of kilometers beyond today’s shores, forming wide savanna–forest mosaics, mangrove-fringed estuaries, and lagoons teeming with life.

• Wallacea: Beyond the drowned shelf lay Sulawesi, the Moluccas, Banda, Halmahera, Timor, and the Philippines—a chain of volcanic and limestone islands divided by deep channels marking the Wallace Line. These crossings demanded deliberate navigation and early maritime technology.

• Andamanasia: To the northwest, the Andaman and Nicobar Islands, together with Aceh’s offshore arcs (Simeulue–Nias–Mentawai), Preparis–Coco, and the Cocos (Keeling) Islands, formed isolated forested refugia edging the exposed Sunda shelf. Their reefs, mangroves, and turtle beaches stood largely unpeopled but ecologically robust.

This region, straddling the equatorial monsoon belt, offered every possible habitat: mountains, caves, mangroves, coral reefs, and inland plains—each a seasonal hub for late Pleistocene foragers.

Climate & Environmental Shifts

• Early Period (49–40 ka): Alternating warm–wet and cool–dry pulses governed by orbital forcing and monsoon strength. Forests waxed and waned, while lower sea levels extended savannas across exposed shelf flats.

• Mid–Late Period (40–30 ka): Cooler, drier glacial trend; rivers incised deeper valleys, and interior lakes and wetlands shrank. On Sundaland, open woodlands and grasslands expanded, while the monsoon weakened and the dry season lengthened.

• Approach to the LGM (after 30 ka): Intensified aridity inland; coastal productivity remained high as cold upwelling zones enriched fisheries. In Wallacea and Andamanasia, rainfall persisted in volcanic uplands and cloud-forest refuges, sustaining biodiversity through the glacial maximum.

These climatic oscillations required mobility and ecological flexibility, drawing humans toward coasts and river corridors where food remained predictable.

Human Societies and Lifeways

Sundaland Foragers

• Population & Organization: Small, mobile bands of hunter–fishers numbering a few dozen individuals, moving seasonally between river valleys, forests, and estuaries.

• Subsistence:
  • Terrestrial: red deer, wild cattle (banteng), pigs, and forest birds; fruit, tubers, nuts, and honey.
  • Aquatic: riverine fish, turtles, mollusks, and estuarine shellfish.
  • Fire management maintained patchy mosaics that attracted game and improved travel routes.

• Settlements: Open camps along paleo-rivers and karstic caves (Lang Rongrien, Niah, Tabon) served as wet- and dry-season bases.

Wallacean Islanders

• Maritime Expansion:
  Short but deliberate crossings linked Bali–Lombok, Sulawesi, the Moluccas, and the Philippines. Voyagers likely used bamboo rafts or dugout craft, already capable of island-hopping across swift straits.

• Economy:
  Coastal and reef exploitation dominated: fish, shellfish, turtles, and seabirds; inland forests provided sago palms, fruits, and nuts.

• Symbolism:
  The world’s earliest known figurative rock art—hand stencils and painted animals in Sulawesi and Borneo (≥40,000 BP)—emerged here, marking one of humanity’s earliest symbolic revolutions.

Andamanasian Refugia

• Status: Probably uninhabited or sparsely visited; nearby shelf coasts were rich in mangroves, turtles, and seabirds.

• Role: Served as ecological storehouses—dense forests and reefs sustaining species that would repopulate coastlines when sea levels rose.

Technology & Material Culture

Across the region, technological diversity mirrored environmental range:

• Stone industries: Large flakes, blades, and denticulates; hafted spear points and knives. Toolkits adapted to mixed forest and aquatic settings.

• Organic tools: Bone and shell awls, barbed points, and fish gorges; woven nets and basketry inferred from indirect evidence.

• Pigment and ornament: Red ochre for body painting and adhesive binders; perforated shell, tooth, and bone beads as markers of identity and alliance.

• Fire technology: Controlled burning reshaped landscapes for hunting and plant gathering.

• Maritime engineering: Simple rafts or canoes allowed crossing of deep channels—among the earliest seafaring experiments on Earth.

Movement & Interaction Corridors

• River Arteries: The paleo-Mekong, Mahakam, and Kapuas systems functioned as “interior highways,” linking uplands to the exposed shelf coastlines.

• Maritime Crossings:
  • Wallace Line passages—Bali–Lombok, Makassar Strait, Molucca gaps—connected hunter–gatherer populations despite fierce currents.
  • Philippine corridors—Luzon–Visayas–Mindanao and the Sulu arc—fostered early trade in shell, pigment, and worked bone.
  • Andaman–Nicobar chains paralleled the Sunda coastline, possibly sighted but not yet permanently occupied.

These overlapping networks formed the world’s earliest complex seascape of interaction, prefiguring Holocene navigation traditions.

Belief and Symbolism

Southeast Asian peoples by this time had developed a sophisticated symbolic world:

• Cave and rock art in Sulawesi, Borneo, and Palawan reveal enduring mythic narratives—animals, hand stencils, and spirit figures linked to hunting and fertility.

• Ochre rituals and bead ornaments signified personal and group identity.

• Animistic cosmologies likely centered on water, rock, and ancestral spirits inhabiting caves, springs, and trees—beliefs that would echo in later Austronesian spiritual systems.

Environmental Adaptation & Resilience

Adaptation was rooted in mobility, flexibility, and knowledge sharing:

• Ecological diversity—forests, coasts, savannas, and rivers—allowed resource substitution during climate downturns.

• Fire and water mastery reshaped landscapes and improved predictability.

• Distributed knowledge networks—oral mapping of water sources, seasonal winds, and fauna—anchored community resilience.

• Littoral foraging provided a caloric safety net through the harshest glacial episodes.

These strategies ensured persistence through one of the most variable climatic regimes on Earth.

Long-Term Significance

By 28,578 BCE, Southeast Asia had achieved a remarkable cultural and ecological synthesis:

• The Sundaland–Wallacea continuum fostered societies adept at both land-based and maritime living.

• Rock art, ornamentation, and pigment use announced an enduring symbolic sophistication.

• Island-hopping navigation and inter-band exchange forged the first Pacific seafaring tradition.

These foundations—broad-spectrum foraging, flexible mobility, and deeply symbolic worldviews—would underpin every later cultural transformation of the region, from Holocene coastal settlement to Neolithic agriculture and, millennia later, the great Austronesian voyaging dispersals that carried Southeast Asia’s legacy across the entire Pacific.

Southeastern Asia (49,293 – 28,578 BCE): Sundaland Foragers, Island Crossings, and the First Rock Art

Geographic and Environmental Context

Southeastern Asia includes southern and eastern Myanmar, Thailand, Cambodia, Laos, Vietnam, the Malay Peninsula, Sumatra (excluding Aceh and its western islands), Java, Borneo, Sulawesi, the Philippines, and surrounding archipelagos (Banda, Molucca, Ceram, Halmahera, Sulu seas).

• Anchors: the Irrawaddy, Chao Phraya, and Mekong basins; the Red River Delta; volcanic highlands of Java–Sumatra; Borneo’s riverine interiors; Sulawesi’s peninsulas; the Philippines’ Luzon–Visayas–Mindanao cores.

• Sea level stood 50–120 meters lower than today, merging the Malay Peninsula, Sumatra, Java, and Borneo into a single mega-landmass—Sundaland—of broad river valleys, savannas, and coastal plains.

• To the east, the deep-water gaps of Wallacea (Sulawesi, the Moluccas, the Bali–Timor arc, and the Philippines) remained islands, separated by swift channels (the Wallace Line) that demanded short open-sea crossings.

Climate and Environmental Shifts

• The period spans late Pleistocene cool phases and interstadials, trending toward the onset of the Last Glacial Maximum near the end of the age.

• Cooler–drier episodes expanded grassland mosaics on Sundaland, while interstadials rebounded forests and wetlands; monsoon strength fluctuated, shifting river courses and estuaries.

Societies and Political Developments

• Populations consisted of small, highly mobile hunter–gatherer bands organized by kinship and seasonal partnership networks.

• Group sizes typically ranged from a few families to larger seasonal congregations along rivers, lakes, and exposed coastal flats.

• Leadership was situational (tracking, navigation, healing), with no enduring centralized authority.

Economy and Trade

• Broad-spectrum foraging: large and medium game (e.g., deer, wild cattle, suids), riverine and lacustrine fishing, shellfish, turtles, mangrove resources, honey, fruits, and tubers.

• On Wallacea and the Philippines, nearshore reefs and seagrass lagoons supported intensive coastal collecting and fishing; island forests yielded sago, nuts, and birds.

• Inter-band exchange moved high-quality stone, shells, ocher, and worked bone/teeth ornaments along coastlines and river corridors.

Subsistence and Technology

• Flaked stone toolkits (large flakes, blades, denticulates, scrapers) with early hafting for spears and knives; regional diversity reflected local raw materials (chert, chalcedony, volcanic glass).

• Bone and shell tools (awls, fish gorges, barbed points) expanded fishing efficiency; fiber nets, traps, and weirs likely appeared along major waterways.

• Controlled fire shaped edge habitats and eased travel; hide and bark-fiber cordage supported hafting and carrying slings.

• Short pelagic crossings—probably on bamboo/dugout craft or lashed-raft platforms—linked Sundaland with Sulawesi, Banda–Moluccas, and the Philippines, sustaining an early island-hopping seamanship tradition.

Movement and Interaction Corridors

• Sundaland river highways (paleo-Mekong, paleo-Mahakam, paleo-Kapuas, paleo-Brantas, etc.) funneled people and goods from interior hunting grounds to exposed continental-shelf coasts.

• Wallacea crossings (Bali–Lombok, Sulawesi straits, Moluccan gaps) maintained east–west contact despite strong currents, carrying tools, pigments, and ideas.

• Philippine routes (Luzon–Visayas–Mindanao, Sulu arc) linked deltaic estuaries to offshore reefs and islands.

Belief and Symbolism

• Cave and rock art blossomed: hand stencils and animal figures in Sulawesi and Borneo date within this timespan, testifying to complex symbolic life.

• Ocher use (body painting, binder for adhesives, and ritual marking) and personal ornaments (shell/teeth beads) signaled identity and inter-band alliances.

• Hunting magic, ancestor beings, and water/rock spirits likely structured ritual calendars tied to monsoons, spawning runs, and herd migrations.

Adaptation and Resilience

• Mobility + diversification minimized risk: bands shifted between forests, river wetlands, shelf coasts, and island reefs as climates oscillated.

• Mixed terrestrial–aquatic diets buffered lean seasons; littoral “safety nets” (shellfish, reef fish) stabilized caloric intake.

• Distributed knowledge networks (navigational wayfinding, water-source mapping, plant–animal lore) enhanced survival as landscapes transformed approaching the glacial maximum.

Long-Term Significance

By 28,578 BCE, Southeastern Asia’s peoples had forged Sundaland–Wallacea lifeways: expert foragers, early mariners, and celebrated rock artists. Their river–reef economy, short-hop seafaring, and symbolic traditions laid enduring foundations for later Holocene societies—from Angkor’s rice basins to the spice circuits of the Moluccas.

East Asia (49,293 – 28,578 BCE): Upper Pleistocene I — River Plains, Exposed Shelves, and Steppe–Taiga Frontiers

Geographic & Environmental Context

At glacial lowstand (~60–90 m below present), East Asia spanned two interlocking realms that shared people, tools, and seasonal movements:

• Maritime East Asia: broad exposed shelves along the Yellow Sea, East China Sea, and Taiwan Strait; extended lower courses of the Yangtze, Yellow (Huang He), and Liao formed vast estuarine wetlands far seaward of today’s coasts. Honshu–Shikoku–Kyushu were joined into a single main Japanese island with enlarged lowlands; Taiwan was intermittently land-bridged or separated by narrow straits.

• Upper East Asia: steppe–taiga mosaics from Mongolia and the Amur–Sungari–Liao basins to Primorye and the Sea of Japan/East Sea rim. Wider coastal plains in Primorye and narrowed straits between Sakhalin–Hokkaidō–the mainland reshaped corridors for game and people.

Together, these lands offered a full spectrum of habitats—river valleys, shelf coasts, temperate forests, taiga, and open steppe—stitched by monsoon rhythms and cold-season winds.

Climate & Environmental Shifts

Glacial climate imposed strong seasonality and pulsed between cooler/drier stadials and warmer/wetter interstadials:

• Dansgaard–Oeschger warm phases: stronger summer monsoon, broadleaf forest expansion, higher river productivity, and stable estuaries.

• Heinrich/cold stadials & approach to the LGM: weakened monsoon, steppe and open woodland spread over lowlands; heavier dust flux from inland deserts; longer, colder winters in northern China and Korea.

• Regional contrast: the Amur basin remained a relatively milder corridor than the Mongolian plateaus; shelf coasts stayed productive even in cool phases.

Subsistence & Settlement

Foragers mastered dual terrestrial–aquatic economies, moving seasonally across coast–river–upland belts:

• Lowlands & coasts: hunted red deer, sika deer, boar, wild cattle; fished estuaries, tidal flats, and shelf-edge bays; collected shellfish and seaweeds in sheltered embayments.

• Uplands & interior valleys: pursued sika/red deer, elk/moose, gazelle or wild horse on steppe margins; gathered nuts, fruits, tubers during interstadials.

• Northern rivers & coasts: targeted anadromous fish (salmon runs) and marine mammals in ice-free seasons.

• Mobility: regular river-valley⇄upland⇄coastal rounds; winter aggregation near protected river benches or rock shelters; warm-season dispersal to hunt, fish, and collect plant foods.

Technology & Material Culture

Toolkits reflected both cold adaptation and aquatic specialization:

• Lithics: flake and blade industries across the south; widespread microblade complexes in the north and east for composite weapons suited to mobile hunting. Raw materials ranged from fine chert and quartzite to obsidian in the Russian Far East.

• Organic tools: bone points, gorges, barbed tips for fish and marine mammals; hide/fiber nets, traps, and probable weirs along major waterways.

• Processing & craft: grindstones for nuts/seeds, bark- and hide-working; ochre as pigment and adhesive additive; shell and tooth ornaments signaling identity and alliances.

• Clothing & shelter: tailored furs and layered garments; insulated dwellings and hearths for severe winters.

Movement & Interaction Corridors

• Shelf-coast routes linked populations along the exposed Yellow/East China Sea margins, easing movement between mainland China, Taiwan, and southern Japan.

• River corridors—especially the Yangtze and Yellow, and in the north the Amur–Liao—connected interior foragers with estuary fishers and shellfishers, enabling seasonal aggregation and exchange.

• Strait crossings narrowed between Korea and the Japanese archipelago and between Sakhalin–Hokkaidō–the mainland, allowing occasional maritime passages in favorable windows.

• Khingan passes and Primorye coast provided east–west and north–south conduits during mild summers.

Cultural & Symbolic Expressions

• Ornaments: perforated shells and animal teeth, beads, and pendants mark social ties and group identity.

• Pigment: ochre for body decoration, hide treatment, and ritual.

• Mark-making: probable early engravings/paint in caves and shelters; structured hearths and curated spaces suggest seasonal aggregation rites tied to monsoon peaks, fish runs, and game migrations.

Environmental Adaptation & Resilience

• Risk buffering: dual reliance on terrestrial hunting and aquatic foraging mitigated monsoon variability and winter scarcity.

• Seasonal scheduling: coast/river/upland alternation matched spawning runs, mast pulses, and herd movements.

• Preservation: drying/smoking of fish and meat, storage of nuts and tubers, and hide processing bridged cold seasons.

• Habitat flexibility: readiness to pivot between forest refugia, steppe edges, and estuarine flats as climates oscillated.

Toward the Last Glacial Maximum

By 28,578 BCE, East Asian foragers were fully at home in a cold, highly seasonal world—ranging across exposed shelves, great river plains, and steppe–taiga frontiers with microblade weaponry, watercraft-assisted mobility, and wide social networks.
These lifeways—broad-spectrum diets, corridor travel, cold-weather craft, and shared symbolism—formed the durable base from which Early Holocene communities would later develop low-level plant tending (proto-rice in the lower Yangtze, millet in the north) and more permanent coastal settlement as seas rose and forests recovered.

Maritime East Asia (49,293 – 28,578 BCE): River Plains, Coastal Shelves, and Temperate Forests

Geographic and Environmental Context

• During this period, sea levels ~60–90 m lower exposed wide coastal plains along the Yellow Sea, East China Sea, and Taiwan Strait, linking Taiwan to the mainland.

• Major rivers — the Yangtze, Yellow (Huang He), and Liao — extended far onto the exposed shelf, forming extensive estuarine wetlands.

• The Japanese islands of Honshu, Shikoku, and Kyushu were joined in a single landmass with much broader coastal lowlands; they were separated from the mainland by narrower but still significant straits.

Climate and Environmental Shifts

• The region lay under the influence of the East Asian monsoon, which fluctuated with Dansgaard–Oeschger warm phases and Heinrich cold/dry events.

• Wetter interstadials strengthened the summer monsoon, expanding broadleaf forests and enhancing river productivity.

• Drier stadials weakened the monsoon, expanding steppe and open woodland into lowland plains; dust from inland deserts increased.

• Winters were colder, especially in northern China and Korea, with more frequent frost and snow.

Subsistence and Settlement

• Lowland foragers hunted red deer, sika deer, boar, and wild cattle; fished and gathered shellfish in estuaries and tidal flats.

• Upland and inland groups targeted sika and red deer, serow, and smaller mammals; gathered nuts, fruits, and tubers.

• Coastal populations harvested marine fish, shellfish, and seaweeds year-round, especially in more sheltered bays.

• Seasonal movements linked river valleys with uplands and coastal resource zones.

Technology and Material Culture

• Lithic industries included flake tools, blades, and in some areas, early microblade traditions, particularly in northern parts of the region.

• Stone raw materials varied: fine chert, quartzite, and volcanic rock from uplands; coastal gravels supplied cobbles.

• Bone points and fish gorges likely used in coastal settings.

• Ochre fragments and shell ornaments suggest symbolic use.

Movement and Interaction Corridors

• Coastal routes linked populations along the exposed Yellow and East China Sea shelves, easing movement between mainland China, Taiwan, and southern Japan.

• River corridors (especially the Yangtze and Yellow) connected interior and coastal zones, supporting seasonal migration and exchange.

• Narrower sea gaps may have facilitated occasional crossings between the Korean Peninsula and the Japanese archipelago.

Cultural and Symbolic Expressions

• Ornament production using perforated shells and animal teeth; ochre used for body decoration or hide treatment.

• Possible early rock engravings or markings in caves and rock shelters.

Environmental Adaptation and Resilience

• Dual reliance on terrestrial hunting and aquatic foraging buffered against monsoon variability.

• Seasonal exploitation of multiple habitats — coastal, riverine, and upland — increased resilience.

• Storage or preservation of nuts, fish, and meat may have been practiced to bridge winter shortages.

Toward the Last Glacial Maximum

By 28,578 BCE, Maritime East Asian foragers had mastered a range of environments from temperate forests to exposed coastal shelves, maintaining mobility and cultural connections across land–sea transitions as the region edged toward colder, drier LGM conditions.

Upper East Asia (49,293 – 28,578 BCE): Steppe–Taiga Frontiers and Riverine Corridors

Geographic and Environmental Context

• This region spans high, cold plateaus (Mongolia), riverine lowlands (Amur, Sungari, Liao), and coastal zones along the Sea of Japan/East Sea.

• During this period, sea levels ~60–90 m lower widened coastal plains in Primorye and narrowed straits between Sakhalin, Hokkaidō, and the mainland.

• The land bridge between the Korean Peninsula and southwestern Japan was narrower but still a significant barrier, crossed only intermittently.

Climate and Environmental Shifts

• Dansgaard–Oeschger warm phases brought modest summer warming, allowing expansion of meadow-steppe and scattered forest patches in lowlands.

• Heinrich stadials were cold and dry, expanding open steppe and tundra across Mongolia and northern Manchuria; permafrost zones advanced southward.

• Winters were long and severe; summers were short but could support rich grassland growth in river valleys.

• The Amur basin remained a relatively milder corridor compared to the upland plateaus.

Subsistence and Settlement

• Steppe foragers hunted wild horse, saiga, gazelle, and red deer; used river valleys for fishing and plant gathering in the warmer months.

• Forest–edge groups took elk, moose, and boar; collected nuts and berries in interstadials.

• Seasonal movements followed ungulate migrations, often along river systems.

• Coastal foragers exploited shellfish, anadromous fish (e.g., salmon runs), and marine mammals in ice-free seasons.

Technology and Material Culture

• Widespread microblade technology in the north and east, suited to composite hunting weapons for mobile steppe and forest hunting.

• Larger flake tools persisted in some southern zones alongside blades and scrapers.

• Stone raw materials included fine-grained chert, jasper, and volcanic rock; obsidian sources in the Russian Far East were already in use.

• Ochre use is attested in some cave and open-air sites; personal ornaments from bone, tooth, and shell.

Movement and Interaction Corridors

• Amur and Liao river systems acted as north–south migration and exchange routes, linking taiga and steppe populations.

• Coastal corridor along the Sea of Japan/East Sea connected Primorye to southern Korea and possibly to the southern Japanese islands during favorable crossings.

• Mountain passes in the Greater and Lesser Khingan ranges provided east–west movement during milder summers.

Cultural and Symbolic Expressions

• Beads, pendants, and ochre suggest symbolic life was well developed, possibly linked to group identity and seasonal aggregation.

• Rock shelters with hearths and artifact scatters indicate repeated occupation during favorable seasons.

Environmental Adaptation and Resilience

• Seasonal mobility between upland hunting grounds and lowland refugia buffered against extreme winter scarcity.

• Use of both terrestrial and aquatic resources diversified diets.

• Clothing and shelter technology adapted to cold conditions was crucial, with microblade points likely used in fur processing.

Toward the Last Glacial Maximum

By 28,578 BCE, Upper East Asian foragers were fully adapted to a cold, highly seasonal environment, combining microblade weaponry, long-distance mobility, and social exchange networks to endure increasingly harsh glacial conditions.

Central Asia (49,293 – 28,578 BCE): Upper Paleolithic I — Periglacial Steppes and River-Terrace Camps

Geographic and Environmental Context

Central Asia includes the Syr Darya (Jaxartes) and Amu Darya (Oxus) basins (Transoxiana), Khwarazm and the Aral–Caspian lowlands, the Ferghana valley, the Merv oasis and Kopet Dag piedmont, the Kazakh steppe to the Aral littoral, and the Tian Shan–Pamir margins.

• Anchors: Zeravshan and Amu/Syr terrace systems, Kopet Dag foothills, Kyzylkum dune margins, Tian Shan forelands.

• Wide periglacial plains, braided rivers, and loess plateaus framed hunter ranges.

Climate & Environmental Shifts

• Peak Last Glacial: colder, drier; steppe–tundra with sparse woodland pockets; dune activity along the Kyzylkum/Ustyurt edges; lower baseflows in rivers compared to the Holocene.

Subsistence & Settlement

• Big-game foragers tracked horse, saiga antelope, bison, and mammoth on riverine terraces.

• Seasonal camps perched on aeolian bluffs and spring-fed fans; hearths and knapping floors common.

Technology & Material Culture

• Blade–microblade toolkits in high-quality cherts; end-scrapers, burins, bone awls; tailored hides for winter.

• Ornaments: drilled teeth, shell (imported), red ochre.

Movement & Interaction Corridors

• Amu–Syr trunkways and Zeravshan benches structured movement; leeward routes under the Kopet Dag linked to Iranian forelands.

Cultural & Symbolic Expressions

• Portable art and ochred burials reflect Upper Paleolithic symbolic repertoires shared across Inner Eurasia.

Environmental Adaptation & Resilience

• High mobility, riverine focus, and broad prey portfolios buffered climatic extremes.

Northwest Asia (49,293 – 28,578 BCE): Upper Pleistocene I — Mammoth-Steppe Foragers and Ural–Altai Corridors

Geographic and Environmental Context

Northwest Asia includes the lands from the Ural Mountains east to ~130°E, encompassing Western and Central Siberia.

• Anchors: Ob–Irtysh steppe valleys, Altai foothills, Yenisei terraces, Ural forelands.

• Sea levels lower, steppe–tundra extended widely across western Siberia; glaciers capped the Altai ranges.

Climate & Environmental Shifts

• Last Glacial Maximum: cold, arid; permafrost deep; loess plains extended; river channels braided, unstable.

• Steppe–tundra mosaics supported megafauna.

Subsistence & Settlement

• Foragers hunted mammoth, woolly rhinoceros, bison, horse, and reindeer; riverside camps exploited fish and waterfowl.

• Rock shelters in Altai and Minusinsk served as recurrent winter bases.

Technology & Material Culture

• Blade–microblade industries, burins, scrapers; bone/antler points; eyed needles for tailored clothing.

• Portable ornaments: drilled teeth, ivory beads, ochre.

Movement & Interaction Corridors

• Ob–Irtysh–Yenisei rivers structured mobility; Altai passes linked to Mongolia; Ural forelands tied to Eastern Europe.

Cultural & Symbolic Expressions

• Cave art in the Altai (e.g., figurative engravings); ochred burials with personal ornaments; animal figurines.

Environmental Adaptation & Resilience

• High mobility between steppe–river–shelter zones buffered harsh winters; tailored hide clothing ensured survival.

East Europe (49,293 – 28,578 BCE) Upper Paleolithic I — Mammoth-Steppe Hunters and River-Terrace Camps

Geographic and Environmental Context

East Europe includes Belarus, Ukraine, and European Russia west of the Urals (including the forest, forest-steppe, and steppe zones and the Russian republics west of the Urals).

• Anchors: Don terraces around Kostenki–Borshchevo, Oka–Klyazma reaches near Sungir, Dnieper middle valley, Upper Dvina headwaters, and open Pripet margins.

• Periglacial steppe–tundra stretched across Ukraine–southern Russia; braided rivers cut high loess bluffs.

Climate & Environmental Shifts

• Peak Last Glacial Maximum: cold, arid, windswept; permafrost pressed south; sea levels low on the Black Sea shelf.

Subsistence & Settlement

• Foragers targeted mammoth, bison, horse, reindeer on river benches and valley shoulders; fishing and waterfowl were seasonal supplements.

• Semi-recurrent base camps on loess promontories (wind-shelter, visibility, dry footing) with hearths and butchery floors.

Technology & Material Culture

• Blade–microblade industries; burins/scrapers in high-quality cherts; bone/ivory points and needles for tailored cold-weather clothing.

• Personal ornaments (ivory, drilled teeth), extensive ochre use. (Classic burials at Sungir predate this span but signal the regional tradition.)

Movement & Interaction Corridors

• Don–Oka–Dnieper trunkways structured seasonal mobility; interfluve saddles linked watersheds; reindeer/mammoth migration routes guided hunting calendars.

Cultural & Symbolic Expressions

• Portable engraved bone/ivory animal imagery; ochred burials and curated ornaments suggest shared Ice-Age symbolic repertoires across Inner Eurasia.

Environmental Adaptation & Resilience

• High mobility, broad prey portfolios, winter windbreaks, and tailored hides enabled survival in severe periglacial regimes.

Transition

By 28,578 BCE, foragers had mapped terrace ecologies and river corridors that would organize later deglacial movements and exchanges.