A site at Lewisville, Texas, one of the earliest Paleo-Indian sites in North America, represents a possible specialized site of Clovis-aged (around 12,000 B.P.) people who were using fires at least partially fueled by lignite.

Possessing only crude spears and flint-pointed darts  according to the archaeological evidence, these hunters survive primarily on wild game.

While the site seems to represent the Western Hemisphere's oldest culture, the Cretaceous-age lignite was responsible for producing the earlier and erroneous dates of 35,000 BCE, and because of this contamination, later attempts to obtain absolute dates for the site were unsuccessful.

The entire collection of materials from the site is located at the Smithsonian Institution.

Sodom, Gomorrah, Admah, Zeboiim, and Zoar are the cities of the plain mentioned in the Bible as being destroyed by divine intervention.

They may possibly be found in the ruins of five large settlements in the fertile plain southwest of the Dead Sea.

Bab edh-Dhra (bāb al-dhrā'), the site of an Early Bronze Age city located near the Dead Sea, in Wadi Araba, has been forwarded as a candidate for the location of Biblical Sodom.

Bitumen and petroleum deposits have been found in the area, which contain sulfur and natural gas (as such deposits normally do), and one theory suggests that a pocket of natural gas led to the incineration of the city.

Recently, researchers have hypothesized that the back plume of a massive meteor that exploded in Austria in 3123 BCE may have caused a Middle East disaster that sparked the Sodom and Gomorrah legend.

Beeswax candles are used in Egypt and Crete by 3000.

The Natron valley near Cairo, Egypt, annually forms lakes when inundated by the floodwaters of the Nile, because it is below sea level.

These lakes become nearly dry during summer, leaving a deposit of a white, saltlike substance eventually called natron.

The substance, also called natrum, is principally sodium carbonate containing smaller quantities of sodium bicarbonate, sodium sulfate, and sodium chloride.

Blended with oil, it is an early form of soap, and will be used for thousands of years as a cleaning product for both the home and body.

It softens water while removing oil and grease.

Undiluted, natron is a cleanser for the teeth and an early mouthwash.

The mineral is mixed into early antiseptics for wounds and minor cuts.

Natron can be used to dry and preserve fish and meat, for making leather, and to bleach textiles; it is also an ancient household insecticide.

The mineral is used in Egyptian mummification because it absorbs water and behaves as a drying agent.

Moreover, when exposed to moisture the carbonate in natron increases pH (raises alkalinity), which creates a hostile environment for bacteria.

In some cultures, natron is thought to enhance spiritual safety for both the living and the dead.

Natron is added to castor oil to make a smokeless fuel, which allowed Egyptian artisans to paint elaborate artworks inside ancient tombs without staining them with soot.

Natron will be used for millennia for embalming, in ceramic pastes, as a detergent, and, when mixed with sand, in the production of glass.

The practical use of natural gas begins during the Warring States period in China, where people use bamboo pipes to collect it from natural seeps and convey it to gas-fired evaporators used in boiling ocean water for the salt.

The Middle East: 333–190 BCE

From Alexander’s Conquests to Seleucid Rule

Alexander’s Empire and Its Impact

In 333 BCE, Alexander the Great decisively defeats Persian forces at the Battle of Issus, marking the rapid decline of the Achaemenid Persian Empire. Advancing swiftly along the Mediterranean coast, Alexander captures crucial Phoenician cities. While most cities surrender, Tyre resists fiercely and is besieged and conquered in 332 BCE, its citizens sold into slavery. Alexander reshapes the region culturally, embedding Greek (Hellenistic) influence deeply into the Middle East. His strategic marriage to Roxana, a Bactrian noblewoman, and mass weddings between his soldiers and Iranian women embody his vision of cultural integration between Greeks and Persians.

Alexander’s sudden death without a designated heir in 323 BCE triggers fierce rivalry among his generals, the Diadochi, fragmenting his empire into multiple Hellenistic kingdoms. General Seleucus I Nicator gains control over much of Mesopotamia and Greater Syria, founding the Seleucid Empire in 312 BCE. Under Seleucid rule, Greek-style cities such as Seleucia on the Tigris and Laodicea in Syria are established, significantly enhancing regional trade and cultural exchange.

Babylon’s Brief Revival

Alexander's conquest briefly revives Babylon, which greets him as a liberator. He honors local customs, such as worshiping Marduk, the city’s chief deity, and announces ambitious plans to revitalize Babylon as a major imperial center. These grand designs remain unfulfilled due to his untimely death in Babylon, likely from malaria.

The Seleucids maintain Babylon’s economic revival through Greek-founded cities, boosting commerce by exporting barley, wheat, dates, wool, and bitumen, and importing spices, gold, precious stones, and ivory. Greek and Mesopotamian scholars preserve ancient astronomical and mathematical knowledge through intensive cultural exchanges.

Phoenician and Cypriot Realignments

Phoenician cities integrate Hellenistic cultural elements into their cosmopolitan traditions. After brief autonomy, Cyprus aids Alexander at the siege of Tyre and enjoys temporary independence. However, following Alexander’s death, Cyprus is contested until Ptolemy I of Egypt secures control in 294 BCE, replacing its city-kingdoms with centralized Egyptian administration.

Hellenistic Cultural Fusion

Hellenistic influence profoundly reshapes the Middle East’s cultural landscape. Greek colonists flood into Syria, expanding trade networks to India, East Asia, and Europe, fostering significant advancements in jurisprudence, philosophy, and science. This synthesis, Near Eastern Hellenism, marks a vibrant cultural and intellectual era.

Challenges to Seleucid Authority

Despite cultural and economic progress, the Seleucid Empire faces internal challenges. In 247 BCE, Arsaces, leader of the seminomadic Parni tribe, revolts against Seleucid control, establishing the Parthian Empire. By 250 BCE, Greek influence recedes significantly eastward, consolidating Parthian hold over the Persian Gulf, creating distinct Persian trade networks separate from Greek Mediterranean commerce.

Antiochus III the Great (223 BCE) sets himself the task of restoring lost Seleucid territories. He reestablishes control over Media and Persia by 221 BCE, though persistent threats from the Parthians and Bactrians necessitate ongoing military campaigns.

Lasting Legacies of the Seleucid Age

Although Seleucid political authority diminishes, their cultural and economic contributions endure. Cities like Antioch and Seleucia remain vital trade and learning centers. Greek language and administrative practices persist, shaping subsequent Middle Eastern political and cultural developments. By fostering economic revival, widespread Hellenization, and enduring cultural synthesis, the period from 333 to 190 BCE profoundly transforms the Middle East, laying foundations for future historical developments.

Alexander the Great absorbs the entire Achaemenid Empire into his holdings in 330 BCE, leaving Persian satraps to govern as he advances eastward.

According to one account, Atropates, a Persian general in Alexander's command, whose name means "protected by fire," lent his name to Media Atropatene, the region of present Azerbaijan, when Alexander made him its governor.

Another legend explains that Azerbaijan's name derives from the Persian words meaning "the land of fire," a reference either to the natural burning of surface oil deposits or to the oil-fueled fires in temples of the once-dominant Zoroastrian religion.

The Romans establish numerous military camps and colonies in Illyria and completely latinize the coastal cities.

They also oversee the construction of aqueducts and roads, including the Via Egnatia, a famous military highway and trade route that leads from Durres through the Shkumbin River valley to Macedonia and Byzantium (later Constantinople).

Copper, asphalt, and silver are extracted from the mountains.

The main exports are wine, cheese, and oil, as well as fish from Lake Scutari and Lake Ohrid.

Imports include tools, metalware, luxury goods, and other manufactured articles.

Apollonia becomes a cultural center; Julius Caesar himself sends his nephew, later the Emperor Augustus, to study there.

Juba II, who Augustus had restored as the king of Numidia between 29 BC – 27 BCE, had established Numidia as a Roman ally; he is to become one of the most loyal client kings that serves Rome.

Between 26 BCE and 20 BCE, Augustus has arranged for him to marry Cleopatra Selene II, giving her a large dowry and appointing her queen.

It is probably due to his services with Augustus in a campaign in Spain that lead Augustus to make him King of Mauretania.

By then her brothers, Alexander Helios and Ptolemy Philadelphus, have died, probably from illness.

When Cleopatra marries Juba, she is the only surviving member of the Ptolemaic dynasty.

Juba and Cleopatra cannot return to Numidia, as it had been provincialized in 46 BCE.

The couple is sent to Mauretania, an unorganized territory that needs Roman supervision.

When the couple moves to Mauretania, they rename their new capital Caesaria (modern Cherchell, Algeria) in honor of Augustus.

The construction and sculpture projects at Caesaria and …

The Middle East: 100–243 CE

Roman–Parthian Rivalries and Cultural Transformations

The period from 100 to 243 CE in the Middle East is marked by recurrent conflicts between the Roman Empire and its Iranian counterparts—the Parthians and later, the Sassanids. Emperor Trajan (98–117) significantly expands the Roman Empire's territory in the East, notably annexing regions of Mesopotamia during his campaigns against the Parthian Empire. Trajan’s conquests reach their zenith when he occupies cities such as Seleucia, Babylon, and Ctesiphon, briefly extending Roman control deep into Mesopotamia.

Under Emperor Hadrian (117–138), Syria experiences considerable prosperity, with thriving cities like Damascus, Palmyra (Tadmur), and Busra ash Sham in the fertile Hawran Plateau. Hadrian's systematic land survey establishes a tax system based on agricultural yields that will persist until modern times. Roman architecture enriches Syrian cities with grand buildings, aqueducts, wells, and roads, some of which remain in use to this day.

Religious and Cultural Developments

A significant religious development during this era is the arrival of Christianity in Cyprus. According to tradition, the Apostle Paul lands at Salamis in CE 45, accompanied by Barnabas, a native of Salamis. This marks the beginning of Christianity’s profound influence in the region. Under Roman rule, Cyprus experiences increased prosperity, bolstered by new roads, harbors, and public buildings. Although Paphos becomes the administrative capital, Salamis retains its cultural prominence until it is repeatedly devastated by earthquakes, never regaining its former magnificence.

The Montanist Movement

From 160 to 171 CE, the Middle East witnesses the rise of Montanism, a significant religious movement within Christianity originating in Phrygia. Founded by Montanus and supported by Maximilla and Priscilla (Prisca), Montanists preach an austere lifestyle, anticipating the imminent end of the world. They deny second marriages, question established church authority, and reject forgiveness for post-baptismal sins. The established Church strongly opposes Montanism, excommunicating its adherents, but the movement highlights broader internal tensions regarding spiritual authority and prophecy within early Christianity.

Roman–Parthian Conflicts and Armenian Influence

Throughout the second century, Armenia remains a critical buffer state between Rome and Parthia. In CE 53, under the Parthian king Tiridates, Armenia successfully asserts its autonomy from Roman influence. The Romans, under Emperor Nero, reconcile by officially recognizing Tiridates as king, effectively acknowledging Armenia as a joint client state—a precedent that shapes subsequent Roman–Iranian rivalries.

Roman Emperor Septimius Severus (193–211) conducts significant campaigns against the Parthians, briefly annexing northern Mesopotamia before peace is restored in 202. Later, in 216–217 CE, Emperor Caracalla unsuccessfully campaigns against Parthia, ending with Rome paying large war reparations.

The Rise of the Sassanid Empire

The Parthian Empire faces internal decline, culminating in its overthrow in 224 CE by Ardashir, a governor of the Achaemenian province of Fars. Establishing the Sassanid Empire, Ardashir renews Persian cultural traditions, emphasizing Iranian customs and Zoroastrianism, and reclaims territories once held by the Achaemenids. Ardashir invades Roman territories repeatedly, capturing several cities in Syria and Mesopotamia. Under his successor, Shapur I, Persian–Roman conflicts escalate until Roman victories in 243 CE restore control over contested cities like Carrhae and Nisibis.

Cultural and Demographic Transformations

Throughout this age, the population of Mesopotamia significantly increases due to the influx of Arabs, Iranians, and Aramaeans. Roman conquests in regions such as present-day Azerbaijan, referred to as Albania by the Romans, further reshape the demographic and cultural landscape. Armenia and Georgia, influenced by Greek, Roman, and Persian interactions, continue to be important cultural crossroads, fostering exchanges between Eastern and Western civilizations.

The Middle East from 100 to 243 CE thus stands as a period of intense military confrontation, religious and cultural evolution, and transformative demographic shifts, laying foundational structures for future regional dynamics.